Figure 1.11: Common drive designations
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One of the basic functions of any operating system is its ability to handle and store information. In fact, the computer's ability to store records in a comparatively small physical space makes it a prized tool for businesses everywhere. Storing data in a computer system has other perks, however. Computer data may easily be created, edited, searched, and sent to others.
At the end of the day, though, it doesn't matter how much data you could pack onto your computer if you can't find any of it. The Windows operating system lets you easily sort and organize data for use later. The Windows file system can be likened in many ways to the storage system of a file cabinet. In this section, you will learn the ins and outs of the file system.
A file is a group of related data that is dealt with as a singular, named unit. Files are used to keep unrelated data separate. For example, your company's fourth-quarter sales report would be a separate file from the letter you're writing to your Aunt Martha. Separate files are typically created for separate documents.
RAM and ROM are two of the most basic computer-science terms, and also a concept that many users fail to grasp. They describe two types of memory: short-term (RAM, Random Access Memory) and long-term (ROM, Read Only Memory). RAM is used for temporarily holding data, processing tasks, etc. ROM is used for storing information to be accessed at a later time.
Typically, the more RAM you have, the faster your computer is; making it possible to open multiple programs at once and play more advanced, realistic games. RAM is usually simply called memory, as in, "I have only 128MB memory, and I wish I had more!"
The largest unit of Windows organization is the drive. Each drive represents one of the data-storage devices attached to the computer.
Each drive is assigned a letter for quick identification. A colon (:) is the symbol for drive. So, if the floppy drive is assigned the letter "A" (as it nearly always is), it may quickly be referenced as "A:" The diagram below lists the most common drive designations.
Figure 1.11: Common drive designations
Each drive has an activity light that flashes when data is being read from or written to a drive. This helps you know whether the computer is attempting to load information or not.
Figure 1.12: Examples of media, 1970s-2000s
A hard drive (or hard disk) is a magnetic disk housed in a metal box. Data is stored on the disk with magnetic patterns. Because of this, placing a magnet near a computer will scramble a hard disk's patterns, effectively ruining the computer. The hard drive is the main data storage unit within a computer. The hard drive is located in the computer core. It is not generally considered removable (although it may be replaced). Most files are saved to the hard disk.
The hard disk is a convenient location to save files, because it requires no disk to be accessed. However, in order to be transferred to another computer, the files usually must be copied to some type of portable media or sent over the Internet.
Media is a general term describing data-storage devices that are to be used with a computer. They come in many different types. Media is designed to be removed from a computer. Using media, you transfer data between computers. Another important use of media is to create a "backup copy" of important files, just in case the hard drive fails for one reason or another.
The most popular types of media are described below.
The computers of the 1960s stored information on cards with holes cut out of them. The data was stored in patterns of holes in the card.
Obviously, this setup was not without flaws. Simple programs required huge stacks of punchcards. If one card was lost, the entire program was ruined. Once a card was created, data on it could not be changed. The flaws of the system were highlighted in the debacle of the 2000 election in Florida, where mispunched holes in punchcard-style ballots caused the outcome of the Presidential race to be in question for weeks.
In the 1970s, punchcard systems were phased out and cassette tapes were ushered in. These are the same type of tape that was used to store music in the 1980s. Cassettes were more portable than punchcards, and were also rewritable.
By the mid 1980s, cassette tapes were being replaced by large floppy disks.
In the past, the most popular type of media was the floppy disk. Floppy disks have become the symbol of all things computers. The "Save" button is universally shown as a floppy disk, no matter if you're using Windows or Mac or Linux. Even now, nearly every computer system manufactured or even used contains some kind of floppy disk slot. However, CD-ROM are taking over from floppy disks, since they can hold 700 times the data that a floppy can.
The core of a floppy disk is a magnetic disk, just like a hard drive. The disks are somewhat floppy, hence the name. To prevent damage to the disk, it is housed in a plastic case.
The first floppy disks were 5" across and were designated as the B:. Now, the standard floppy-disk size is 3", and they are inserted into the A:.
To use a floppy disk, insert the disk into the floppy drive (a slot on the front of the computer core), with the end with the metal slider facing inward (towards the drive), and the side with the label facing up. Most disks have a small arrow that will guide you. Slide the disk in until you hear it pop into place. To remove the disk, simply press the eject button next to the drive. The disk will pop out enough that you can grab it with your hands and remove it from the drive.
A floppy disk can be set to read-only by flipping a small switch on the back of the disk. A disk set to read-only can be accessed, but not written to. If the disk is set to read-only, the switch will reveal a hole in the disk (just like a VHS tape).
In the BIOS section of Section 1-2, we briefly discussed the concept of a boot disk. When the computer is turned on, it will check the A: for a boot disk. If there is no disk in the drive, the computer will boot up to the operating system, as it normally does. If there is a boot disk in the drive, the computer will boot to it. If, however, there is a disk in the drive that is not a boot disk, the computer displays a message saying something like "Invalid system disk. Replace and hit any key." In this case, simply remove any disks from the drives and press a button on the keyboard. The computer should now load the operating system like normal.
The CD-ROM (Compact Disc - Read Only Memory) is the current medium of choice for storing data. CDs offer many advantages over the conventional floppy disc: 1) CDs can hold more data, 2) for the most part, they do not corrupt as easily as floppies, 3) they are cheaper. The disadvantages of CDs are: 1) they are harder to store than floppies (must be kept in a jewel case or sleeve to prevent scratching and smudging), 2) They are bulkier than floppies, and 3) If a CD gets scratched, it is harder to recover the data.
Another possible problem with the system is that it requires special hardware (called a CD burner) and software in order to write data to a blank CD. There are two kinds of blank CDs: the CD-Recordable, or CD-R, and the CD-Rewritable, or CD-RW. The CD-R can be written to once, while the CD-RW may be written to as many times as the disk allows before it wears out (usually displayed somewhere on the disc and packaging, for example: "Rewritable 4x"). The CD-RWs typically cost more, however, and since CD-R's are so cheap, many people find it more economical to simply burn a new CD and throw the old one away. CD-R's can also be used for music CDs. In fact, a music CD and a data CD-ROM are exactly the same, they only differ in the way data is written to them. In addition, DVDs are being used with computers with DVD burners to store data - while more expensive, DVD discs can hold many CD's worth of data!
One of the questions that CD-ROM newbies often ask is, "Why is it called burning, anyway?" The reason is because data is written on discs with a laser, so the data is burned onto the disc.
The next generation of removable data storage units is represented by flash media, a huge market with an array of brands for your consideration. Flash media units plug into a USB port (or into a reader that plugs in to a USB port) and start at a capacity equivalent to that of 22 floppy disks. More expensive units may hold as much as a CD-ROM.
The smaller units cost as much as $29, but as the technology gets older, expect the price to come down, as it has for nearly every new technology introduced. Flash media offers many advantages over CD-ROMs: 1) the units are more compact - they may be easily slipped in a pocket or clipped to a key chain, 2) In most cases, no specialized equipment is required to write to the media. Of course there are disadvantages: 1) Since the units are so small, you can lose them easier, and 2) some older operating systems may not be compatible with the technology and need drivers in order to use the media.
Most flash media stores data in silicon chips. However, some units are composed of an exorbitantly small hard drive. These units can hold over 1 GB of data, but are often more expensive than the silicon-based media.
The leading brands of flash media are Lexar Media's JumpDrive, and Sony's Memory Stick, which is used in their digital cameras to store pictures, and the generic SD card, manufactured by many companies and used in a wide range of cameras. Before buying flash media, investigate your options as to which kind of media is right for you.
On any drive, but particularly the hard drive, there can be so many files that it can become very hard to find anything. To categorize related files, the drive can be subdivided into sub-categories called folders or directories. Most post-95 versions of Windows supply a folder, called My Documents, for your personal files. (By "personal files", I mean files that were created by an actual human being, and are not "system files" created and used by the computer.) The files that keep Windows running smoothly are stored in the Windows folder, and programs and the files related to them are stored in the Program Files directory.
Occasionally, there can be just too many files for one folder. In that case, subfolders can be created inside any particular folder. For instance, "My Documents" is typically supplied with a subfolder called "My Pictures" for holding...well, pictures, of course. "Program Files" normally has subfolders for each program that stores its data there.
Folders and subfolders provide an excellent mechanism for sorting your files. A proper folder system can help you find and organize important (or unimportant) data faster. You should probably create a subfolder if you have five or more files relating to the same thing.
The absolute location of a file on a computer is called its file path. This location is the drive, folder, and subfolder(s) that a file is stored in. The path starts with the drive that the folder is located on, followed by the folders and subfolders, separated by backslashes (\).
Suppose we were locating a file named File1. If this file was located on a floppy disk, its path would be A:\File1. If it were located in a folder named "Folder1" on the hard drive, it would be listed as C:\Folder1\File1. And if it was to be found in a subfolder of Folder1 named "Sub1", the path would be C:\Folder1\Sub1\File1. And so on.
Folders can also be referenced in this manner. On a Win9x machine, My Documents is located at C:\My Documents. On a Win2K/XP computer, it is located at C:\Documents and Settings\[username]\My Documents.
Not all files are alike. Files differ in the kind of data stored in them and the programs than can successfully open them and display their contents. You shouldn't expect a JPEG picture file to open in a text editor, for example. A picture is not text; it is a picture, and should be opened in an appropriate picture-viewing program.
To distinguish between file types, each file has a file extension, a dot and 3 or 4 characters following the file's name. Here are some common extensions:
| Extension | Description |
|---|---|
| .exe | EXEcutable Program File |
| .txt | Plain Text File |
| .doc | Microsoft Word Document |
| .xls | Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet |
| .ppt | Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation |
| .pps | Microsoft PowerPoint Slideshow |
| .htm, .html | Web page (HTML document) |
| .bmp, .jpg, .gif, .png | Pictures (explained in Section 7-1) |
| .wav, .wma, .mp3 | Sounds/Music (explained in Section 9-1) |
| .avi, .mpeg | Movie Files (explained in Section 9-1) |
| .zip | Compressed ZIP file |
There are multiple kinds of picture, music, and movie formats because these files often get very large. Different formats compress them so that they take less hard drive space. These formats and when to use them will be more fully explored in the chapters to come.
Files were defined at the beginning of the section as being a single, named unit. So this means that each file must have a name. The name must be unique in that folder. Two files may have the same name, but...
C:\Folder1\File1 and C:\Folder2\File1 would work correctly. Even though the names are the same, the two files are in separate folders.
Your file names are allowed to have 250 characters, including spaces. Names are not case sensitive. (That is, Image.jpg and imagE.jpg are the same file.)
The asterisk (*) is called the wildcard character. It represents "EVERYTHING" or "ALL". However, in a practical setting the wildcard character only applies to a particular folder. For example, *.bmp represents all files with a .bmp file extension. picture.* is short for all files named picture, regardless of what extension it carries. And *.* refers to all files, period.
One thing that makes computing easier is the fact that programmers are kind of lazy. They like to take the same code for common events such as saving, opening, and things like that, and copy and paste it into all their programs. This sounds kind of bad, but it's actually quite good for four reasons:
For example, when you save and open files, you will usually encounter a dialog that looks similar to this:
Figure 1.13: Using the Open and Save dialogs
The dialog may look slightly different according to your operating system and the tools the programmer used, but all in all they work about the same.
NOTE
A programmer would call this a common dialog, because it is common to all programs. No matter what program you're using, the Open dialog will remain about the same.
Often, you will want to view the contents of a drive or folder. You can use the My Computer utility to do this. Double-click the "My Computer" icon on the desktop. (Alternatively, Windows XP users may select Start > My Computer).
Figure 1.14: Viewing drives in My Computer
You see icons representing each drive. There are also icons for some system utilities, including the Control Panel and Printer Folder. To view the contents of a drive or to open one of these system utilities, double-click it.
CAUTION
Don't forget to insert a disk into a floppy drive or CD-ROM drive before you call it up on the screen. Working the floppy drive with no disk in it can damage the mechanical parts inside. (CD-ROM drives won't damage in this way.) Plus, it's a huge waste of time.
Figure 1.15: Viewing contents of drives and folders
Folders (and subfolders) are represented by manila file-folder icons. Files are shown as an icon that is based on the file's type. For instance, a plain text (*.txt extension) file is represented as a spiral notepad, while a Windows Bitmap (*.bmp) is shown with a piece of paper and 3 paintbrushes.
To view the contents of a folder, double-click it. If you double-click a file, the appropriate program for editing that type of file will run - with the file already loaded! We say that the program is associated with that file type.
One of the many new additions to Windows XP is the task panes that occupy the left third of the My Computer window. The panes are used similar to a toolbar, with quick shortcuts - with one important difference. As you move around throughout your computer and select different files, the tools shown in the pane change. For instance, if you go into My Pictures, it might show uniquely picture-oriented tasks, such as "View As A Slide Show" or "Order Prints Online." If you're in My Music, you can "Play All" and "Shop For Music Online." Many of the tasks discussed below can be done in the task panes if you happen to have Windows XP.
Figure 1.16: Task panes in Windows XP
There are many ways to select items from My Computer:
Creating a folder is a simple task. Select File > New > Folder. A new folder is created with the name "New Folder." It will be in a box, indicating that you can type a new name. When you have done so, press Enter. Your folder is now ready for use.
You can also right-click an empty space - bringing up the context menu - and select New > Folder.
Select some files and/or folders that need to be deleted and hit Delete or Backspace on the keyboard. You can also right click them and choose "Delete."
To move a file into a subfolder, simply drag-and-drop it into the folder. Moving a file to a different drive or folder is trickier. You will have to open another My Computer window and then drag-and-drop from one window to the other.
NOTE
If this seems unnecessarily complicated to you, you're not alone. Files may be transferred easier; see "Using Windows Explorer" below.
Sending a file to the floppy drive is simple. Right-click the file and, from the context menu that appears, select Send To > 3 Floppy (A:). When transferring files to and from floppy drives, the files won't be moved, they'll be copied.
If you want to copy a file on a hard drive or move a file to a floppy drive, simply drag with the right mouse button (right-drag). When you drop the file at its destination, a small menu will appear, giving you four choices: "Copy Here", "Move Here", "Create Shortcut Here", and "Cancel". Select the appropriate choice and it will be effected.
You can copy an entire floppy disk to another disk without having to copy to the C:. Insert the disk you want to copy from (the so-called source disk) and find a blank disk to copy to (the destination disk). In My Computer, right click the floppy drive and click Copy Disk on the context menu. A dialog will appear; check the options on this and click the Start button. Wait until the computer asks for the destination disk. Eject the source disk, insert the blank disk and click OK. After a time, the Copy Disk dialog will disappear. The copy will be complete.
If you want to remove all files from a disk, making a blank disk, you can easily do so by formatting it. Formatting a disk will destroy all data on it and rewrite the information on the disk that allows it to be read by Windows. After formatting a disk, it is like a new disc right out of the package.
To format a floppy disk, right click the A: icon and choose Format from the context menu. Check now to make sure that the dialog displayed says "3 Floppy (A:)" in its title bar. If you do not, you may accidentally format your hard drive (C:). Add a disk label (if desired), check any options that apply, and click Start. The format will take some time. Finally, the disk will be completely clean and ready for use or storage.
A more advanced file browser is availiable inside Windows. Called Windows Explorer, it is recommended only for expert users. I recommend that you do not use Windows Explorer until you use My Computer for six months to a year. If you carelessly misdrag a file in Explorer, you might drop it somewhere you don't want it - and then lose it 'cause you don't know what folder it went into. Horrors!
To open Explorer, right click the Start button on the task bar and pick Explore from the context menu. The window that appears will look much like the one shown below.
Figure 1.17: Windows Explorer
Seem familiar? Here's the thing: Windows Explorer and My Computer are the same program! Explorer differs from My Computer only in the list of folders down the left third of the screen. This list takes the form of a folder tree and shows every single drive and folder on your computer. This is where the danger and power of Explorer comes from.
A tree view is a common way of displaying a hierarchy like a file system. It starts with the highest order of items along the left edge of the tree, and then each sublevel is indented toward the right. Let's see how a tree view is used to depict the Windows file system.
The tree view begins by listing major locations of your computer along the left edge of the pane. This includes the Desktop, My Documents, My Computer, and Recycle Bin (described in Section 1-6). The My Computer entry contains all of your drives, indented to show that they "belong" to My Computer. Drives that contain folders have a "+" next to them. Clicking the + sign reveals these folders, and the + changes to a -. Clicking the - will hide the folders and change it back to a +.
Folders, too, will display a + sign if they contain subfolders. You can expand the contents of folders as well, by clicking the + sign. In this way, you can locate any folder in the file system.
Copying and moving files from one location to another is much simpler in Explorer than My Computer. Simply drag the file to its desired location in the tree view, and drop. The same right-drag trick described above will work here, too.
Now, up until this point, you might have had the impression that your computer has an unlimited amount of room. Not so! Like a file cabinet, your computer has a lot of room to store stuff, but it has a limit to how much stuff it can take.
Now you may be thinking, okay, my computer's hard drive can hold - what, 10,000 files? 20,000? But, if you think about it, wouldn't a nine-page newsletter with pictures and color take more room than a three-paragraph note?
Files do have different sizes. The basic unit of file size is a byte (b). Youve probably heard of bytes before. Trouble is, theyre tiny. A byte equals about a single letter. That newsletter might be 1,909,000 bytes. The whole C: might hold 13,586,073,280 bytes. Not particularly convenient.
Remember when you learned metric? Yeah, I know, it was probably thirty years ago, but do you remember the basic idea, with the units? Remember the little graph? Well, bytes can be upgraded to bigger units, too. The next bigger unit of measurement is the kilobyte (KB). Its equal to 1,000 little bytes. That newsletter is actually 1,909 KB. The first floppy disks could hold only 720 KB.
The next unit is the megabyte (MB). One MB equals 1,000 KB. A floppy disk can hold 1.44 MB. A CD-ROM can hold about 700 MB.
Now, when you're talking about the size that a hard drive can hold, you could use megabytes. My computers C: can hold 12,600 MB. But the biggest unit (for useful purposes today, that is) is the gigabyte (GB). DVDs can hold 1.7 GB of data. My hard drive holds 80 GB.
Here's a chart you can use that will help you convert from one unit to another.
Figure 1.18: File size conversions
To discover how much space a file takes up, highlight it in My Computer. Details about the file are shown in the left portion of the screen, under the folder name in (9x/2000) or in the task panes (in XP).
Figure 1.19: File details (from Windows XP)
You can also discover a lot of information by right-clicking a file, folder, or drive, and picking Properties from the context menu. Doing this with a drive displays a pie graph showing how much of the drive is used.
Figure 1.20: Drive properties window
Next: Common Commands and Hotkeys
This picture simply means that I wrote the page correctly!! :)